History

Tirthankaras and Lineage

Tirthankaras are “Ford-makers” — spiritual teachers who attained kevala jnana (perfect knowledge) and guided others toward liberation (moksha).

Total: 24 Tirthankaras in Jain tradition.

Meaning of ‘Jain’

The word ‘Jain’ is derived from Jina(“Conqueror”)

Refers to one who has conquered worldly attachments, desires, and attained spiritual victory.

Causes for the Rise/Prominence of Jainism:

Category	Key Points
Religious Factors	• Reaction against rigidity of Vedic religion, complex rituals, and Brahmana dominance. • Opposition to the varna system and its rigid birth-based hierarchies. • Kshatriyas resented Brahmanical supremacy and supported alternative paths like Jainism.
Socio-Economic Factors	• New agrarian economy in eastern India (iron tools, surplus production) questioned priestly dominance. • Brahmanas imposed strict occupational restrictions, alienating several groups. • Jainism’s teachings in Prakrit (common language) made them accessible, unlike Sanskrit texts of Brahmanas.
Philosophical Factors	• Emphasis on personal effort, discipline, and practice over rituals. • Stressed experience-based proof rather than textual authority or speculation. • Salvation considered attainable by any individual, irrespective of caste or birth.

Life of Vardhamana Mahavira

Birth and Early Life

• Born: c. 540 BCE at Kundagrama near Vaishali (Bihar)
• Clan: Jnatrika (Naya) Kshatriya
• Father: Siddhartha — chief of Jnatrikas
• Mother: Trishala — sister of Lichchavi ruler Chetaka
• Royal Connections: Through his maternal uncle Chetaka, his family was linked to Magadha’s Haryanka dynasty (Chetaka’s daughter married Bimbisara).
• Marriage:Married Yashoda — with whom he had a daughter Priyadarshana (Anojja)

Renunciation and Austerities

• At age 30, renounced worldly life and became an ascetic.
• Initially followed the practices of the Nirgranthas, a sect traced to Parshvanatha (23rd Tirthankara).
• Associated briefly with Gosala Maskariputra (founder of Ajivika sect) but later separated due to disagreements.
• Practised severe austerities, meditation, and fasting for 12 years.

Attainment of Kevalajnana (Enlightenment)

• At age 42, attained Kevalajnana (omniscience / infinite knowledge).
• Place: On the banks of the Rijupalika river, near Jrimbhikagrama, in the field of a householder named Samaga.
• With enlightenment, he became a Jina (Conqueror) and later called Mahavira (Great Hero).

Teachings and Mission

• First Sermon:Delivered at Pava
• Preached for about 30 years across Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa, Vaishali, Sravasti, and Rajagriha.
• His teachings were in Prakrit, making them accessible to common people.

Core Doctrine:

• Ahimsa (non-violence) – central to conduct.
• Emphasis on personal effort, self-discipline, and austerity.
• Belief in karma and its consequences – reward/punishment determined by one’s deeds.
• Rejected Vedic rituals, priestly supremacy, and the idea of creator God; considered the universe as eternal and governed by natural laws.
• Advocated equality but did not abolish caste distinctions (unlike Buddhism).

Quote (Bhakta-parijna): “It is owing to attachment that a person commits violence, utters lies, commits theft, indulges in sex, and develops a yearning for unlimited hoarding.”

Followers and Legacy

Converted 11 chief disciples (Ganadharas) – mostly Brahmanas.

Important disciples:

• Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman → regarded as founders of the Jain monastic community.
• Jambu → believed to be the last person of current era to attain enlightenment.

Titles:

• Mahavira – Great Hero.
• Jitendriya – Conqueror of senses.
• Arihant – Worthy.
• Possessed Avadhi Jnana (superhuman insight).

Death

• Died at age 72 in 468 BCE (some traditions: 527 BCE) at Pavapuri near Rajgir (Bihar).
• After death, he attained moksha and became a Siddha (fully liberated soul).

Doctrines of Jainism

Concept of Time in Jainism

• Jain doctrine is older than Buddhism.
• Time is cyclical, divided into:
• Utsarpini (progressive half-cycle) – degree of happiness increases.
• Avasarpini (regressive half-cycle) – degree of happiness decreases.
• Each half cycle has 24 Tirthankaras (ford-makers/enlightened beings).

Important Tirthankaras:

• 1at Rishabhadeva (symbol: Bull), mentioned in Rig Veda and Vayu Purana.
• 22nd– Neminatha of Saurashtra (Gujarat).
• 23rd– Parshvanatha of Benaras (symbol: Snake).
• 24th– Mahavira of Vaishali (symbol: Lion).

Core Philosophical Doctrines :

• a.Anekantavada (Doctrine of Non-Absolutism / Manifoldness)
• b.Syadavada (Doctrine of Conditional Predication)
• c.Nayavada (Doctrine of Standpoints/Partial Perspectives)
• d.Triratna (Three Jewels / Threefold Path)
• e.Pancha Mahavrata (Five Great Vows)
• f.Ahimsa (Doctrine of Non-violence)

(a) Anekantavada (Doctrine of Non-Absolutism / Manifoldness)

• Reality is complex, has infinite attributes & modes.
• Truth is perceived differently from different viewpoints → no single view is complete.
• Illustrated by blind men and the elephant parable.
• Only Kevalins (omniscients) can know the full reality; others grasp partial truths.
• Encourages relativism & pluralism.

(b) Syadavada (Doctrine of Conditional Predication)

• All judgments are conditional; truth is relative.
• Every statement should be prefixed with syat (maybe).
• Provides a balanced, conditional approach to truth.

(c) Nayavada (Doctrine of Standpoints/Partial Perspectives)

• Reality can be explained from many viewpoints (nayas).
• Each naya gives a partial truth, not the complete reality.
• Promotes tolerance of multiple perspectives.

(d) Triratna (Three Jewels / Threefold Path)

Path to moksha (liberation):

• 1.Samyag Darshana (Right Faith) – Perceiving reality correctly without prejudice or superstition.
• 2.Samyag Jnana (Right Knowledge) – Accurate knowledge of substances & truths of the universe with proper attitude.
• 3.Samyag Charitra (Right Conduct) – Living ethically, avoiding harm, detachment from impure thoughts.

(e) Pancha Mahavrata (Five Great Vows)

(Originally 4 by Parshvanatha; Mahavira added Brahmacharya)

• 1.Ahimsa (Non-violence)

• Cornerstone of Jainism → “Ahimsa Paramo Dharma” (Non-violence is supreme religion).
• Applies to action, speech & thought.
• Extends to all beings: humans, animals, insects, plants.
• Commoners avoid harming multi-sensed beings; monks avoid even harming one-sensed beings (ekendriyas, nigodas).
• Prohibits war, agriculture, and mandates strict vegetarianism.
• 2.Satya (Truth)
• Always speak truth; silence preferred if truth causes harm.
• Truth requires conquering greed, anger, fear, jealousy, ego.
• Observed in thought, speech, and deed.
• 3.Asteya (Non-stealing)
• Do not take anything not given, even if unclaimed.
• Taking more than one’s need = theft.
• Applies also to alms, trade, and livelihood.
• 4.Brahmacharya (Celibacy/Chastity) – added by Mahavira.
• Monks: total abstinence from all sensual pleasures (including thoughts).
• Householders: limited sexual relations only with spouse.
• 5.Aparigraha (Non-possession / Non-attachment)
• Renunciation of attachment to material possessions.
• Wealth → greed, jealousy, selfishness, ego, violence.
• Mahavira: “Desires have no end; only the sky is the limit.”

Mahavratas vs Anuvratas:

• Mahavratas – Strict vows, meant for ascetics/monks.
• Anuvratas – Partial vows, adapted for lay followers.

Other Tenets of Jainism

• Rejection of God as creator – universe runs by natural causality.
• Karma & rebirth – cycle of birth/death governed by karma.
• Liberation (Moksha) – attained through austerity, renunciation, ethical life.
• Social stance – did not abolish caste system but minimized ritualism; accepted followers from all varnas.

Philosophy of Jainism

a) Metaphysical Foundation

Dualistic philosophy → Universe consists of two eternal categories:

• 1.Jiva (Conscious beings / Souls) – endowed with life, intelligence, and bliss; but bound by karma.
• 2.Ajiva (Non-living beings / Matter, space, time, motion, rest) – without consciousness.

Bondage of Jiva and Ajiva → Karma (material particles) binds the soul to the cycle of birth and rebirth. Liberation (Moksha) is attained by shedding karma through penance, right conduct, and knowledge.

b) Anekantavada (Doctrine of Multiplicity of Reality)

• Reality is many-sided and cannot be comprehended from a single viewpoint.
• Truth is relative, not absolute → promotes intellectual tolerance.

c) Syadvada (Doctrine of Conditional Predication)

• Every statement is conditional (syat = “maybe”).
• Reality can be expressed in seven possible ways (Sapta-bhangi).
• Emphasises relativity of knowledge → no single perspective is final.

d) Sallekhana / Santhara

• Voluntary, gradual fasting unto death.
• Considered a form of ultimate penance to free soul from karmic bondage.
• Reflects Jain emphasis on self-discipline and renunciation.

The Five Types of Knowledge (Jnana) in Jainism

Spread of Jainism

a) Early Factors

• Language: Preached in Prakrit, language of the common people (not Sanskrit patronised by Brahmanas).
• Organisation: Mahavira organised followers into a Sangha (monastic order) that admitted both men and women.

b) Regional Spread

• Western India – Spread where Brahmanical influence was weak (Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa).
• Southern India –
  • Chandragupta Maurya became a Jain monk in later life, settled at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
  • Bhadrabahu migration (after 200 years of Mahavira’s death):
  • Due to a 12-year famine in Magadha, monks migrated south.
  • This led to division of Jainism into Digambaras (those who migrated) and Svetambaras (those who stayed back).
  • Spread into Tamil Nadu by 2nd–1st century BCE.
• Eastern India –
  • Reached Kalinga (Odisha) in 4th century BCE.
  • Patronised by King Kharavela, who promoted Jainism widely.

c) Comparative Note with Buddhism

• Jainism spread slower than Buddhism due to its austere practices.
• However, Jainism retained a continuous presence in India, unlike Buddhism which disappeared from its birthplace.

Reasons for the Spread of Jainism

• Simple Doctrines: Clear ethical code (non-violence, truth, austerity).
• Language: Use of Prakrit made it accessible to common people.
• Royal Patronage:
  • Chandragupta Maurya in Karnataka.
  • Kharavela in Odisha.
• Migration due to Famine: Bhadrabahu-led movement to South India ensured wider geographical reach.
• Admission of Women & Commoners: Sangha open to all sections → broadened base.
• Weakened Brahmanical Control: Found fertile ground in regions where Vedic influence was weak (West & South India).

Sects of Jainism

Origin of the Split

• Cause: A severe famine in Magadha (c. 4th century BCE / 298 BCE).

Migration:

• South India (Shravana Belgola, Karnataka) – Group led by Bhadrabahu (accompanied by Chandragupta Maurya).
• Magadha (North India) – Group led by Sthulabhadra.

Result:

• South Indian group maintained strict ascetic practices (nudity, austerity).
• North Indian group adopted liberal practices (white clothing, relaxed codes).

Consequence:

• Emergence of two major sects – Digambara (sky-clad) and Shvetambara (white-clad).

Differences Between Digambaras and Shvetambaras

Sub-Sects of Jainism

Jain Literature

Jain Literature is called Agamas (canonical texts) or Siddhantas.

Based on the teachings of Lord Mahavira, initially preserved orally, later documented.

Written mainly in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit, later also in Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Kannada, Tamil, Hindi, German, English.

Provides insights into religion, philosophy, politics, economy, trade, culture, and society of ancient India.

Classification of Jain Literature

A. Agama (Canonical) Literature

• Compiled by Ganadharas (direct disciples of Mahavira) and later by Shrutakevalins.
• Initially consisted of 14 Purvas and 12 Angas → Purvas later lost.

Surviving Canon (Śvetāmbara tradition):

• 12 Angas (limbs)
• 12 Upangas (subsidiary texts)
• 10 Prakirnas / Painnas (scattered pieces)
• 6 Cheda-Sutras (disciplinary rules)
• 4 Mula-Sutras (basic texts)
• 2 Independent Texts (encyclopedic in nature)

Key Features of Angas

• Meaning: “That which came out from the Lord’s mouth.”
• Teachings of Mahavira compiled by Ganadharas.
• Central focus on Ahimsa, asceticism, sermons for monks and laypeople.

Examples:

• Acharanga Sutra (1st Anga) – Rules for monks; compiled by Kshamashraman Devardhigani.
• Sutrakritanga (2nd Anga) – Discusses Jain rites and distinct features.
• Bhagavati Sutra (5th Anga) – Largest Anga; contains 36,000 Q&As with Mahavira.

Upangas

Explanations and expansions of Angas. Mostly dogmatic, mythological in content.

Cheda-Sutras

Deal with monastic discipline, penance, and rules for monks/nuns. Closely parallel to Vinaya-Pitaka of Buddhists.

Mula-Sutras

Basic scriptures for beginners in monkhood. Example: Uttaradhyayana Sutra – Collection of sermons, parables, and ballads.

Individual Texts

Encyclopedic in nature, cover both religious and non-religious subjects.

B. Non-Agama Literature

Consists of commentaries, independent treatises, and philosophical texts.

Written in multiple languages: Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, regional Indian languages, and modern languages.

Examples:

• Kalpa Sutra (Bhadrabahu) – Biographies of Tirthankaras (esp. Parshvanatha & Mahavira).
• Theravali (Merutunga) – Genealogical text.
• Padma-Charita (Vimala Suri) – Jain Ramayana version.
• Antar Katha (Rajashekhara) – Didactic tales.
• Parisishthaparvan (Hemachandra) – Political and religious history.
• Haribhadra – Key Jain philosopher; wrote works on Yoga.
• Divakara – Nyayavatra, treatise on logic.

Digambara Canon (Siddhanta)

Digambaras believe Śvetāmbara canon is lost. They preserved Jain doctrine through separate texts:

i. Shatkhandagama (Scripture in Six Parts)

• Authors: Acharya Pushpadanta & Bhutabali (c. 2nd–3rd CE).
• Language: Prakrit.
• Subject: Detailed exposition of Karma theory.
• Sections: Jiva-sthana, Bandha, Vedana, Maha-bandha, Vargana.

ii. Kasayapahuda (Treatise on Passions)

• Compiled by Gunabhadra (2nd–3rd CE).
• Finalized by Jinasena (9th CE).
• Discusses Kashayas (passions) and their karmic impact.

iii. Anuyogas (Expositions) – Composed 2nd–11th CE

Divided into four categories:

• Prathamanuyoga – Jain Epics & Universal History (e.g., Padma-Purana, Harivamsha Purana).
• Charananuyoga – Codes of conduct.
• Karananuyoga – Mathematics, cosmology.
• Dravyanuyoga – Philosophy & metaphysics.

Notable Jain Authors & Works

Jain Councils

Jain Architecture

General Features

• Jain architecture did not evolve as an entirely independent style; influenced by Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
• Distinguished by austerity, simplicity, and emphasis on symbolism.

• Patronized mainly by merchant class and regional rulers.

Forms of Jain Architecture

Cave Architecture (Layana / Gumpha)

• Earliest evidence: Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves (Odisha, 1st c. BCE).
• Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela found here.

• Other notable caves: Ellora (11th–12th c. AD, Maharashtra), Sittanavasal (TN), Mangi-Tungi (MH).

Basadis (Monastic Establishments)

• Simple Jain temples, prominent in Karnataka.
• Example: Meguti Jain Temple (Aihole Inscription).

Temples (Jinalayas)

• Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan): Built by Solanki rulers; constructed entirely in white marble; noted for detailed carvings.

• Ranakpur Jain Temple (Rajasthan): Dedicated to 1st Tirthankara Adinath; built in 15th century with Chaumukh (four-faced) design.
• Girnar and Palitana Temples (Gujarat): Palitana → cluster of over 800 temples on Shatrunjay Hill.
• Parasnath Hill (Shikharji, Jharkhand): Major pilgrimage site.
• Penukonda (AP), Muktagiri (MH): Regional temple clusters.

Statues and Colossal Idols

• Gomateshwara (Bahubali), Shravanabelagola (Karnataka): 57 ft monolithic statue, erected by Western Ganga dynasty (c. 981 AD).
• Rishabhdev statue at Bawangaja (MP): 84 ft, built in 12th century AD.
• Gopachal Parvat (Gwalior): Gigantic rock-cut Jain idols (10th–15th centuries).

Symbolic Objects

• Ayagapata: Votive tablets with symbols like stupa, dharmachakra, triratna; reflect transition from symbol to image worship.
• Mahastambha / Brahmasthambha: Free-standing ornamental pillars, often carrying Tirthankara images on top; example: Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar (Western Ganga dynasty).

Decline of Jainism

Religious & Philosophical Causes

• Rigid austerity and penance → harsher than Buddha’s Middle Path, less appealing to masses.
• Division into Śvetāmbara & Digambara sects → weakened unity and patronage.

Socio-Political Causes

• Decline of royal patronage: Early rulers like Chandragupta Maurya supported Jainism; later rulers like Harsha and Kanishka favored Buddhism.
• Monks’ withdrawal from missionary activity → reliance on merchant communities limited expansion.

Comparative Disadvantage

• Buddhism offered simpler practices and broader appeal.
• Hinduism gradually absorbed Jain values (ahimsa, asceticism) into mainstream practices.